The Social History of Peter Pan and Wendy

Introduction to Peter Pan and Wendy

Peter Pan and Wendy is J.M. Barrie’s classic children’s tale, which transports readers into the majestic world of Neverland—a place where mermaids swim, fairies fly, and little boys never, ever grow up (Barrie, 1911). The story begins in the home of the Darling Family, where Mr. and Mrs. Darling, and their children Wendy, John, and Michael reside. On one remarkable night, Peter Pan bursts into the children’s nursery and convinces them to fly away with him to the island of Neverland (Barrie, 1911).

            Neverland is a most magical and awe inspiring place, inhabited by three different groups: Peter’s band of lost boys, the redskins, and the pirates, overseen by the fearsome Captain Jas. Hook. Captain Hook and Peter Pan are mortal enemies, because Peter cut off Hook’s left arm and fed it to a crocodile, who as a result has developed a taste for Hook’s blood (Barrie, 1911).  

            Wendy, John, and Michael settle into life on the island, and take part in many an adventure. Wendy even assumes the role of mother to the lost boys and Peter, taking care of meals, darning their socks, and reciting bedtime stories. One night, Wendy tells the story of her life back home, and this makes all the lost boys greatly nostalgic, and results in them deciding to leave Neverland to fly back home to England. Peter is devastated, but lets them leave. However, before they can fly away, they are captured by the pirates, and taken hostage on their ship The Jolly Roger (Barrie, 1911). When Peter learns of this, he sneaks aboard, and with the help of the lost boys and a little bit of mischief is able to defeat the pirates, including Hook, who in the end is eaten by the crocodile (Barrie, 1911).

            All of the children fly home, and are joyfully reunited with their families. All except for Peter, for although he knows many joys and adventures, and will remain forever young, he will never know what it means to feel loved (Barrie, 1911). 

Evaluation of Peter Pan and Wendy

            My first introduction to Peter Pan and Wendy was the film Hook, starring Robin Williams as an adult version of Peter Pan, who must return to Neverland to rescue his children when they are kidnapped by Captain Hook (Spielberg, 1991). In fact, as a child I watched three literature-based films on an almost weekly basis: Hook, The Wizard of Oz, and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Oddly enough, although I was an avid reader, I never read any of the novels that inspired these films.

            After a while I expanded my horizons, and grew out of watching and re-watching the three above films, and all but forget about Hook and the story of Peter Pan. My re-introduction to Peter Pan and Wendy did not come until two years ago, when I saw a production of Peter Pan performed at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. I was completely transfixed and mesmerized by Stratford’s production. In it, the character of J.M. Barrie was added to the play, and narrated and introduced many scenes to the audience. Interestingly, the actor playing Captain Hook also played the role of J.M. Barrie. It was this production of Peter Pan that finally inspired me to read Peter Pan and Wendy.

            While watching the play, and later, when I finally read the book, I was surprised to find so many adult themes present in the text. Before reading it, I had always thought of Peter Pan and Wendy as the quintessential children’s book, but discovered that it also has great relevance to adults, and contains a great deal of information that would not likely be grasped by a younger audience. Themes of innocence, loss, and what it means to grow up are prevalent throughout the text. It also includes long and beautiful descriptions of abstract topics, and unimaginable landscapes. In fact, it was the inclusion of these adult ideas that most appealed to me when reading this book. The melancholy tone of the entire novel, and in particular the ending surprised me. But this was also something that greatly appealed to me as a reader. The fact that this novel was able to appeal to young children as well as adults of any age, is inspiring. The beauty in J.M. Barrie’s text truly brings Neverland to life, in a way that neither the film Hook, nor countless other interpretations of the story have done.

Publication History

            Peter Pan and Wendy has a long and complicated publication history, largely owing the fact that it began as a play, and only later was released in book form (Lane, 2004).

            The character of Peter Pan was first written about in the book The Little White Bird, which was published in 1902. After this, Peter was next written on in a play that was titled simply Peter Pan, which debuted in London in 1904, and was staged in New York in 1905 (Lane, 2004). The script of Peter Pan is what the book that is now commonly known as Peter Pan and Wendy is based upon, but this book was not published until 1911, at which time it was simply titled Peter and Wendy (Lane, 2004; Barrie, 1911). However, although the play Peter Pan was staged successfully for many  years, the script from the play under went almost constant revisions, and was not formally published until 1929 (Barrie, 1929).

            To further complicate things, prior to the publication of Peter and Wendy, other Peter Pan related books were also published including: Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens in 1906, and The Peter Pan Picture Book in 1907, an approved retelling of the play Peter Pan aimed at children, which was written by David O’Connor  and illustrations by Alice B. Woodward (Lane, 2004; O’Connor, 1907).

            Since the publication of Peter and Wendy in 1911 countless editions have been released. In 1921, the book was first published as Peter Pan and Wendy, and illustrated by Mabel Lucie Attwell; however, this edition was actually adapted and not written by J.M. Barrie, but May Byron (Seville, 2004; Byron, 1921). Since the release of this publication, future editions of Barrie’s work were published as Peter Pan and Wendy (Seville, 2004). Over time illustrated, abridged, and picturebook editions have all been released. Most recently, the Peter Pan and Wendy Centenary Edition was published in 2010, celebrating 100 years of the timeless story about the boy who refused to grow up (Barrie, 2010).

Book reviews for Peter and Wendy (1911)

            The complicated publishing history described above has resulted in numerous editions and forms of Peter Pan and Wendy being published over time. For the purposes of this paper, reviews pertaining to the publication of Peter and Wendy by J.M. Barrie in 1911 will be examined.

            Based upon the book reviews from major news sources in both the United States and London, is appears that J.M. Barrie’s publication of Peter and Wendy in 1911 was highly praised. The New York Times reviewer writes: “Mr. Barrie makes you quite see it all and fell all the fever and joy of combat and quite wonderful adventure…only curmudgeons can fail to bless Mr. Barrie for doing it” (New York Times 1911: LS650). While, in The Spectator, a London based weekly magazine, their reviewer states: “we are very grateful to Mr. J.M. Barrie for bringing Peter to closer quarters,” (The Spectator, 1911: 833). The Spectator also acknowledges that Peter and Wendy is not only a children’s book, highlighting that adults will greatly enjoy Barrie’s writings on Neverland, as well as his insights into the lives of Mr. and Mrs. Darling (The Spectator, 1911). The positive nature of both book reviews was expected as at the time of publication, the play Peter Pan was already accepted as a critical and popular success.

The era in which Peter and Wendy was published

            Though published in 1911, Peter Pan and Wendy is considered a part Edwardian fiction. The Edwardian Era lasted from 1901-1910, and was the last British era to be named after its ruling monarch, in this case King Edward VII (Maunder, 2003). Books that were published in this period often contained themes based around the conflict between the progressive and the static (Maunder, 2003). In a way, Peter and Wendy fits well within this theme, as the character of Peter Pan refuses to grow up, and as a result is stuck in one place while the world around him continues to move forward. Other notable authors from this period include: Joseph Conrad the author of Heart of Darkness, which was published in 1902, and Frances Hodgson Burnett who published The Secret Garden in 1910.

            Today the Edwardian Era is remember with nostalgia, and is viewed as an idyllic time characterised by opulence, leisure, high fashion, household servants and grand hotels (Cassell & Co., 2002). In the years after the Edwardian Era, which were of course characterized by the First World War, people viewed the this time as one of extravagance, and an a brief idyllic ‘Indian Summer’ between the austere Victorian Era, and the hard times of World War I (Palgrave MacMillan, 2004).  

            Overall, Peter and Wendy was introduced at a perfect time in history, when people were felt free to imagine the world of Neverland, and let the opulence of Barrie’s writing carry them away.

Peter and Pan and Wendy’s Relation to other works by J.M. Barrie

            J.M Barrie was born in Kirriemuir, Scotland in the year of 1860 (Lane, 2004). Both the sadness and joy in his life is said to be reflected in the book Peter Pan and Wendy. When Barrie was seven, his older brother David died in a skating accident, the death of his brother is said to have profoundly affected Barrie’s worldview and inspired the character Peter Pan (Lane, 2004). But it was Barrie’s relationship with the Llewellyn Davies family, which began in 1898 that led to the development and publication of Peter Pan and Wendy in its many forms (Lane, 2004).

            The Llewellyn Davies family consisted of Sylvia, Arthur, and their five children: George, Jack, Michael, Peter, and Nicolas (Lane, 2004). Barrie met George and Jack in Kensington Garden and soon became a fixture in the lives of each of the children, with whom he would play make believe, dream up the world of Neverland and bring to life the character Peter Pan (Barrie, 1929). In Barrie’s now infamous dedication to ‘the five’ in the publication of the play Peter Pan he states: “I always knew that I made Peter by rubbing the five of you violently together, as savages with two sticks produce a flame.” (Barrie, 1929: 2). Barrie became so close with the family that after the deaths of Arthur and Sylvia Llewellyn Davies in 1907 and 1910, from jaw cancer and lung cancer respectively, he assumed guardianship of the children (Lane, 2004). But unfortunately, after the deaths of their parents, the lives of the Llewellyn Davies boys continued on tragically. George was killed in 1915, fighting in World War One, Michael drowned while swimming in 1921, and Peter committed suicide in 1960 (Lane, 2004). J.M. Barrie never lived to learn of Peter’s suicide, by was devastated by the loss of George and Michael, and in fact after Michael’s death, Barrie all but stopped writing (Seville, 2004; Lane, 2004).  

            By the time Barrie made the acquaintance of the Llewellyn Davies family he was already recognized as an established author, most famous for Auld Licht Idylls, a book published in 1888, which is based upon his childhood in Kirriemuir (Serafin and Grosvenor, 2006). Other novels by Barrie including: When a Man’s Single (1888), A Window in Thrums (1889), and The Little Minister (1891) were also well received (Serafin and Grosvenor, 2006). Each of these books involve a deep attraction to a mother figure, displayed within the text, which are hypothesized as revealing Barrie’s own idolization of his mother (Serafin and Grosvenor, 2006; Lane, 2004).

            Not only was Barrie a noted novelist, but he is also recognized as an established playwright, most famed for Peter Pan (1904), but also well recognized for other works including The Admirable Crichton, which was staged in 1902 and published in 1914 (Serafin and Grosvenor, 2006). The Admirable Crichton is written as a comedic social commentary on the roles of servants and masters in high society, and explores what happens when a serving man is forced into leadership (and a high society role) when individuals of all classes become ship wrecked on a deserted island (Barrie, 2004). Though very different than the play Peter Pan, The Admirable Crichton does of course contain the similar setting of an island on which anything can happen, which in someways may be seen as rather similar to the magical island of Neverland.

            Despite the success of Barrie’s other works, it is his play Peter Pan and book Peter Pan and Wendy that he is most well known for. In fact, by 1950 over fifteen million people had viewed the play, and even more had read the book (Serafin and Grosvenor, 2004). Since then, the release of numerous other types of media referencing Peter Pan and Neverland, including the Disney film Peter Pan in 1953 have greatly increased the accessibility of Barrie’s work, and have resulted in Peter Pan, Captain Hook, and Tinkerbell becoming a pop culture icons (Serafin and Grosvenor, 2004; Seville, 2004).

Peter Pan and Wendy’s History since Publication

History in print

            As previously discussed, Peter Pan and Wendy has a long and illustrious history in print, which include the publication of books, plays, and abridge retellings by alternative authors. Peter Pan and Wendy continues to be read by children and adults around the world, and as a result continues to be reprinted. The most significant event in the publication of Peter Pan and Wendy took place in 1929 when Barrie assigned the copyright in Peter Pan over to the Great Ormond Street Hospital, a children’ hospital located in London, England (Seville, 2004). This meant that this hospital would collect royalties in any future performances, publications, or broadcastings that reference or adapt Barrie’s play Peter Pan (Seville, 2004). Barrie’s death in 1937, would usually result in the work becoming accessible and available in public domain, but an in this case an amendment was made in the Copyright Act, which allowed the Great Ormond Street Hospital to continue receiving royalties (Seville, 2004). Although this situation is quite unusual, it seems fitting that the story of the boy who would never grow up is contributing to medical services that ensure that more children will be able to grow into adults (Seville, 2004).

           

History on stage

            After its first staging in on December 27^th 1904, Peter Pan became known as a holiday play, and was revived in London every year around Christmas. Each year, Barrie would make small changes to the script, and occasionally even added lines to the play that were made up by the Llewellyn Davies boys (Seville, 2004). In 1907 one of the greatest changes to the play was made, in which Barrie added an act that explained what happened to Wendy when she grew up (Seville, 2004). In this act, Wendy has a daughter named Jane, who Peter finds when he returns to visit. Peter is shocked that Wendy is no longer a child, but Wendy and Peter are able to come to an understanding when she allows Peter to take Jane away for spring-cleaning each year (Barrie, 1929).

            But the story of Peter Pan and Wendy has also received the Broadway treatment, and in 1950 a musical production of Peter Pan opened in New York. This production stayed very close to the original script, but was not highly viewed or well remembered (Seville, 2004). Four years later, in 1954 Jerome Robbins produced the now famous Broadway musical Peter Pan, which was filmed and broadcast on television (Seville, 2004). Though this production differs considerably from the play, it is one of the most well known stage versions of Peter Pan today.

History on screen

            But today the story of Peter Pan and Wendy is not most known in play or even book form. The creation of two Walt Disney cartoons: Peter Pan, and Peter Pan: Return to Neverland, have instilled cartoon images of characters including Peter, Wendy, Hook, and Tinkerbell in the minds of children around the world (Seville, 2004). Disney’s Peter Pan which was released in 1953, and its sequel which premiered in 2002 are both radical departures from Barrie’s Peter Pan and Wendy, and eliminate almost all of the melancholy and beautiful sadness that is so present in the book (Seville, 2004). Numerous other films have attempted to present Neverland on the silver screen including a silent film released in 1925, and the aforementioned Hook released in 1991 (Seville, 2004; Spielberg, 1991). In fact, the presence of Peter Pan and other character from the book in our culture today, make it difficult to even read Peter Pan and Wendy without imagining Disney or other film interpretations.

The Impact of Peter Pan and Wendy

Influence on other books

            The story of Peter Pan and Wendy has likely has immeasurable impacts on countless authors who have been inspired by Barrie’s work over time. Many authors have published stories abridged or revised versions of Peter Pan and Wendy, but few have written unique works using the characters developed by Barrie because of the work’s unique copyright status (Seville, 2004). In fact, Peter Pan in Scarlet, which was written in 2006, is the only official sequel to Peter Pan and Wendy, which has been acknowledged by the Great Ormond Street Hospital (McCaughrean, G., 2006).

Influence on psychological fields

            The impact that the story of Peter Pan and Wendy has had on society is immeasurable. Barrie’s modern day fairy tale has inspired countless children to believe in magic, to think that fairies are real, to imagine that they too can fly. However, the darker aspects of Peter Pan have also held influence in fields including psychology (Seville, 2004; Trussler, 2007). In fact in 1983 American psychologist Dan Kiley coined the term ‘the Peter Pan syndrome’, using it refer to boys that have never grown up and become men. Michael Jackson is often cited as an example of a man suffering from this psychological issue (Seville, 2004; Trussler, 2007). Later, Kiley went on to write on ‘the Wendy dilemma’, which ensues when woman cannot stop mothering their men (Seville, 2004). The psychological studies that have grown out of Peter Pan and Wendy make it clear that Barrie’s book is anything but a light and fun filled children’s book, but rather a complex and multi-layered story filled with adventures, and gaiety, but also a great deal of sadness, much of which can be seen reflected in Barrie’s own life.

Future Impact

            Peter Pan and Wendy continues to be recognized as a classic children’s novel. Not only is it continually read by young readers around the world, but theatrical, televised, and cinematic interpretation of Peter Pan continued being produced.

References

Byron, M. (1921). J.M. Barrie’s Peter Pan and Wendy: Retold by May Byron for little people with the approval of the author. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

O’Connor, D. (1907). The Peter Pan picture book. London: George Bell and Sons.

Barrie, J.M. (1911). Peter and Wendy. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Spielberg. S. (director). (1991). Hook. United States: Tristar Pictures.

New York Times (1911, October 22). Peter Pan, with Wendy grown up: When she can no longer fly he’s just as happy with her children. LS650.  

The Spectator (1911). Peter and Wendy (book review). 833.

Fiction IV: Victorian and Edwardian. (2003). In Reader's Guide to British History. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/routbrithistory/fiction_iv_victorian_and_edwardian           

ANDREW MAUNDER

Taylor and Francis Books, Inc.

Edwardian era. (2002). In Brewer's Dictionary of Modern Phrase and Fable. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/brewermod/edwardian_era

Copyright © Cassell & co  2002

EDWARDIAN. (2004). In The Palgrave Guide to English Literature and its Contexts, 1500-2000. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/macenglit/edwardian

2004 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN

Barrie, J.M. (2004). The admirable Crichton. Wildside Press.

Barrie, [Sir] J[ames] M[atthew]. (2006). In Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/britlit/barrie_sir_j_ames_m_atthew

Steven R. Serafin (Author), Valerie Grosvenor Myer (Author)

Continuum (publisher)

Seville, Catherine. “Peter Pan’s Rights: To Protect or Petrify.” Cambridge Quarterly 33, no. 2 (2004): 119-154.

Barrie, J.M. (1929). The plays of J.M. Barrie. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Trussler, S. (2007). Peter Pan and Susan: Lost children from Juliet to Michael Jackson. NTQ, 23(4), 380-387. doi: 10.1017/s0266464x07000292

Lane, Anthony. “Lost Boys; Why J.M. Barrie created Peter Pan.” The New Yorker, November 22, 2004. Accessed January 28^th 2012. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/11/22/041122crat_atlarge.

McCaughrean, G. (2006). Peter Pan in scarlet. Margaret K. McElderry Books.

Applying the Theories of Durkheim, Bourdieu and Wolf to the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s 2009 Production of West Side Story

 This is the final paper that I wrote for my undergraduate degree at Trent University. Is is actually the first paper I wrote that directly deals with the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. Since then I've written more Stratford related papers than I can count, and will also be undertaking a Stratford related reading course over the winter term. 

Applying the Theories of Durkheim, Bourdieu and Wolf to the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s 2009 Production of West Side Story

Anthropologists attempt to make sense of culture by observing what is taking place in front of them. Theatre is a cultural event that has been taking place for centuries and thus has a long cultural history that anthropologists can attempt to interpret.  I feel that theatre is a cultural event that lends itself well to anthropological study and that many anthropologists would have much to say about theatre itself, for the purposes of this paper the ideas presented by: Emile Durkheim, Pierre Bourdieu and Eric Wolf will be examined. As theatre is a widely encompassing entity that exhibits great variation over space and time, the cultural event of theatre must be narrowed in order to allow for it to be most successfully examined. Although everything and everyone are interconnected (Moore, 2009; Wolf, 1982) it would be impossible to examine theatre as one cultural event. So in light of this, a singular event will be examined: the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s 2009 production of West Side Story.

Introduction to the Stratford Shakespeare Festival and West Side Story

            The Stratford Shakespeare Festival was established in 1953, and was the first annual theatre festival to be established in Canada (Ouzounian, 2002; Historica Minutes, n.d.). The Festival has four stages where productions are preformed: the Festival Theatre, the Avon Theatre, the Tom Patterson Theatre, and the Studio Theatre (Stratford Shakespeare Festival, 2010 a). It is most famous for the Festival Theatre (see Figure 1), which is home to a unique and famed thrust stage (Ouzounian, 2002). The Stratford Shakespeare Festival is a classical theatre primarily concerned with presenting the works of Shakespeare. A non Shakespearean piece was not preformed until 1957 (Oedipus Rex) and no musicals (excluding operas, which began in 1960) were preformed until 1985, the first being The Pirates of Penzance (Stratford Shakespeare Festival, 2010 b). Some feel that musicals have no place in a classical theatre, as they are too appealing to the masses (Morrow, 2007). Thus, the 2009 production of West Side Story has a unique place in the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s expansive history.

Figure 1: the Festival Theatre’s thrust Stage

http://www.stratfordfestival.ca/order/interior.aspx?theatre=festival&section=B5

West Side Story first appeared on Broadway in 1957, and was later recreated as a film in 1961 (Background Book, 2009). It is a musical retelling of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet reset on the streets of New York (Background Book, 2009; Laurents, et al., 1957). West Side Story focuses on two gangs vying for power on the streets: the Jets, who are native New Yorkers and the Sharks, who are Puerto Rican immigrants (Background Book, 2009; Laurents, et al., 1957). Tony, a reluctant member of the Jets looking for more in life meets Maria, the sister of the Sharks leader at a dance and it is love at first sight (Background Book, 2009; Laurents, et al., 1957). Though Maria and Tony yearn to live in peace they are unable to escape the structure and violence around them resulting in tragic ends (Background Book, 2009; Laurents, et al., 1957). The 2009 production of West Side Story was enacted on the Festival Theatre’s stage (see Figure 1) and was considered to be one of the best musicals the Stratford Shakespeare Festival has ever produced (Ouzounian, 2009).

Theatre is Society Worshipping Itself  

            Emile Durkheim was a theorist concerned with creating a science of society (Hepburn, 2009). He wanted to understand the origins of religion, and the social nature of individuals (Moore, 2009). He saw religion as something that was eminently social, as religious events are community based events that bring people together to experience and reaffirm collective beliefs (Durkheim, 1915). Durkheim created two categories that relate to religion: sacred and profane. Profane is against societal norms, and people feeling profane go to a religious ritual to become sacred and feel as though they are a part of society. Feeling sacred continues once the ritual is over, but eventually people will feel profane and attend a ritual once more (Hepburn, 2009). To Durkheim, when people come together in ritual it is known as collective effervescence, and this coming together results in collective consciousness (Hepburn, 2009). Collective consciousness occurs because people feel that they are a part of society and thus religion can be seen as society worshipping itself (Hepburn, 2009).

            Many parallels can be drawn between the ideas presented by Durkheim and theatre. Theatre has been compared to a religious experience by many involved with the Stratford Shakespeare Festival (Ouzounian, 2002). For example, actress Irene Worth stated on the Festival Theatre: “I came back…when the permanent building had just been done…with a friend and I took him… into this darkened theatre, with just the lights on the stage. And he said… “it’s like a church. Like being in church”. And I said…I’m glad you feel that because the theatre is a holy, a holy invention”. And originally it was, it was used to glorify life and the gods. And if art is not that, then there’s no point in having art” (Ouzounian, 2002: 58), demonstrating the religious nature of theatre. If Durkheim saw Stratford’s production of West Side Story, I believe that he would see it as an experience resulting in collective consciousness. As theatre is an experience shared by everyone in the audience along with all the actors on stage, in which people feel connected to something outside of themselves. Demonstrating that theatre creates a feeling of collective consciousness the artistic director of the Stratford Shakespeare festival stated: “So potent is the electricity that flows through that live connection between artist and audience that it can change the way we think and feel about ourselves and the world we live in” (McAnuff, 2010). This connectedness allows for an individual to feel sacred and a part of society and this is a feeling that persists after the performance.

            Theatre can be seen as society worshipping itself. Both the best and worst of the human condition are presented on stage, and audiences gather to view and understand themselves. Society is presented on the stage in all forms. In West Side Story, many characters exist, yet none are one dimensional they all have positive and negative qualities, and through the production we grow to understand and love each of them, despite their flawed nature. People can recognize parts of themselves in each of the characters and grow to accept their flaws themselves. Thus, theatre at its core creates an understanding of oneself and the society we live in, allowing for people to develop a deeper relationship with society itself.

            The thrust stage (see Figure 1) that West Side Story is presented on also allows for audience members to gain a deeper connection with society, because it allows for the audience to be closer to the actors and experience what is taking place all around them. Festival actor Hume Croynon demonstrates this point in stating: “Tony Guthrie [the Festival's first artistic director] always felt that if you had that kind of a theatre with the audience wrapped around it, it created more of a sense of communion. And you could all be in the same church together. And Tony was right. The thrust stage gets rid of any artificial division between you and the people watching you” (Ouzounian, 2002: 221). Thus, the Festival Theatre’s thrust stage creates an almost religious feeling, in which audience members are able to feel closer to society, and more connected to a collective consciousness. 

Legitimate Taste in a Classical Theatre

            Pierre Bourdieu is concerned with how people work within structures, and the role of agency in structure (Moore, 2009). He believes that people have four different kinds of capital: social, economic, cultural and symbolic; and the amount of capital they possess, plays a role in what they have access to in life, although people also have the agency to control how they operate within different structures (Hepburn, 2010; Moore, 2009). He also speaks on legitimate tastes, which are tastes viewed by a group of people to be acceptable and vary depending on the field being studied (Hepburn, 2010). The ideas presented by Bourdieu relate back to musical theatre at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, as well as to the musical West Side Story itself.

            To many theatre patrons having legitimate taste is extremely important. They feel that Shakespeare is the finest of the playwrights, and that those who only see Shakespearean theatre have the most cultural capital because they view it as something members of high culture should do. Members of high culture view musicals as something that attract popular culture and thus are below the legitimate tastes that should be held by high culture (Morrow, 2007). Demonstrating this point, in the introduction to a book containing both Romeo and Juliet and West Side Story, Norris Houghton states: “What glorious verse falls from the lips of Shakespeare’s boys and girls! True, there is a rollicking jazzy vigour in such songs of West Side Story…but it pales alongside the pyrotechnical display of Mercutio’s Queen Mab speech…” (1965: 13). Throughout this introduction Houghton continually restates his believe that a musical could never surpass the brilliance of Shakespeare, which has a timeless appeal that anyone of high class would recognize (1965). The addition of multiple musicals to the festival has disappointed some who feel that the Stratford Shakespeare Festival is becoming too preoccupied with showcasing musicals (which they make more money off of) at the expense of Shakespearean pieces (Morrow, 2007).

            The plot and characters in West Side Story also directly relate to Bourdieu’s ideas on structure and agency. The characters Maria and Tony find themselves lacking the agency to live as they want to, as the structure of the gangs they each are involved with has created a situation they are unable to escape from, illustrating this at one point Maria states: “But it’s not us! It’s everything around us!” (Laurents, et al., 1957: 70). The idea that structure controls the lives of the players in West Side Story goes against Bourdieu’s idea that individuals are able to work within structures, because although society has rules, individuals are able to act within these rules using individual behaviour and strategy to exert their agency (Moore, 2009). In West Side Story the characters are unable to exert agency on the structure that has been built around them resulting in disastrous consequences. Thus, West Side Story does not subscribe to Bourdieu idea that people can act within structures to change their surroundings, but rather takes more of a determinist approach in which the structure determines the end result.

In West Side Story the members of the two gangs: the American Jets and Puerto Rican Sharks are a part of a structure in which the Sharks have less cultural capital than the Jets, and both have less capital than the adults in the story: notably Lieutenant Shrank and Officer Krupke. The Puerto Rican Sharks lack social capital because they do not have connections in America to gain adequate jobs; lack economic capital because they are paid less to work than 2^nd generation American workers in similar positions; lack cultural capital because they have a different culture than other American ‘blue collar workers’, and are not considered a part of American culture; and lastly lack symbolic capital because they are not considered to be true Americans because of they way they look and speak, and because of this are put down by everyone around them. The American Jet gang lacks social capital because they do not have the connections needed to break away from their gang lifestyle; lacks economic capital because they are unable to make enough money to exert power on the world; lack cultural capital because they are not the children of professionals and thus, lack the knowledge required to succeed in the schooling system; and lastly lack symbolic capital because they are viewed as lowly hoodlums (Laurents, et al., 1957; Moore, 2009). But again, what West Side Story does not take into account is the ability of characters to use their agency to gain cultural capital and exert force on their surrounding structure.

As Culture is not Static, How can Theatre Remain Relevant?

            The anthropologist Eric Wolf is concerned with the interconnections between diverse locations throughout the world. He advocates that any view of culture as coherent, static or isolated is incorrect because they do not recognize the connections between different societies, which shape cultural change (Moore, 2002; Wolf, 1982). In West Side Story, the gang culture of the Sharks and Jets has been created as a result of globalization allowing for the interconnections between 2^nd generation Americans and newly immigrated Puerto Ricans to take place. West Side Story demonstrates that individual cultures are never isolated, but are impacted and altered by there relation to other cultural groups. In West Side Story ‘blue collar’ American culture is impacted by the immigration of Puerto Ricans, which causes Americans to lose jobs and makes them disdainful towards the other. The Puerto Rican culture is changed as a result of the immigration of Puerto Ricans to America. In America they see a world of opportunities that they are unable to access and this makes them resentful of native New Yorkers who are given more opportunities than them.

            Any view of culture as static and unchanging is incorrect (Wolf, 1982), and yet theatre is only able to tell the tale of a culture or cultures at one moment in history. Classic pieces of theatre (including West Side Story) are retold through time, how is it that they are able to remain relevant throughout time and not simply become a relic of a past era? I believe that the best musicals as well as other classical theatrical pieces (including the works of Shakespeare) are able to transcend time and remain relevant not because of the stories they tell, but because of the themes they present. In West Side Story the themes of hate, love, violence and passion are portrayed, these are universal themes that all humans can and will continue to be able to connect with (Background Book, 2009).

Conclusions

            The anthropologists Pierre Bourdieu, Emile Durkheim and Eric Wolf all have theories that can be applied to the cultural event of theatre, specifically to the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s 2009 production of West Side Story. Theatre is something that people attend to experience a collective consciousness and feel sacred, and the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s thrust stage helps in allowing for people to do this. People that attend musical theatre may have a different level of cultural capital than those who will only view what is considered classical theatre. In West Side Story, different characters have different levels of cultural capital that affect what they can and cannot do, and the structure around them limits how they can act in their lives. The characters in West Side Story are affected by global interconnections and cultural collisions resulting in cultural change. Lastly, although cultures are not static, and the stories presented in theatre only show one moment in time, the tales told in theatre are able to remain relevant because the themes that are presented transcend time as they speak about the human condition, and themes in humanity that never change but affect us all.

References

Background Book. 2009. West Side Story: pp 7-11. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at: http://www.stratfordfestival.ca/uploadedFiles/Stratford/Watch_and_Listen/Publications/Backgrounder/09_background_book.pdf/. Last Accessed: April 16^th 2010.

Durkheim, E. 1915. Introduction to Elementary Forms of Religious Life. pp 66-79. In: Erickson, P. A., and Murphy, L. D. (eds.). Readings for a History of Anthropological Theory.

Hepburn, S. 2009, November 16^th. Lecture Notes: Durkheim’s Sociology.

Hepburn, S. 2010, February 22^nd. Lecture Notes: Bourdieu: culture, power, practice and cultural forms. 

Houghton, N. 1965. Romeo and Juliet and West Side Story. Dell Publishing Co., Inc.

Historica Minutes. The Arts: Stratford. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at: http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10221. Last Accessed: April 16^th 2010.

Laurents, A., Bernstein, L., Sondheim, S., and Robbins, J. 1957. West Side Story. Random House Inc.

MacAnuff, 2010, March 27th. Statement from Des McAnuff, Artistic Director

Stratford Shakespeare Festival. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at: http://www.stratfordfestival.ca/uploadedFiles/Stratford/media/2010_Press_Releases/WorldTheatreDaystatemen.pdf. Last Accessed: April 16th 2010.

Moore, J.D. 2009. Visions of Culture: an Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists. AltaMira Press.

Morrow, M. 2007, August 22nd. Richard’s Run: a 2007 interview with Stratford legend Richard Monette. CBC News. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at:  http://www.cbc.ca/arts/theatre/monette.html. Last Accessed: April 16th 2010.

Ouzounian, R. 2002. Stratford Gold: 50 Years, 50 Starts, 50 Conversations. McArthur and Company.

Ouzounian, R. 2009, June 8^th. This Story Achieves Greatness. The Toronto Star. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at: http://www.thestar.com/entertainment/article/647048. Last Accessed: April 16th 2010.

a) Stratford Shakespeare Festival. 2010. Four Distinct Stages. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at: http://www.stratfordfestival.ca/about/theatre.aspx?id=1198. Last Accessed: April 16^th 2010.

b) Stratford Shakespeare Festival. 2010. Production History. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at: http://www.stratfordfestival.ca/about/history.aspx?id=1178. Last Accessed: April 16^th 2010.

Wolf, E. R. 1982. Europe and the People Without History. pp 370-386. In: In: Erickson, P. A., and Murphy, L. D. (eds.). Readings for a History of Anthropological Theory. 

Examining the Responsible Leadership of Tom Patterson in the Development of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival using Henri Fayol’s Five Managerial Functions

To mix things up a little and get back to my library/theatre roots here's a paper I wrote last year on Tom Patterson's responsible leadership in the founding of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. 

Introduction 


The Stratford Shakespeare Festival (located in Stratford, Ontario) was established in 1953 under the responsible leadership of Tom Patterson (Vigneault, and Lapierre, 2008; Jones, 2005; Edinborough, 1995). The creation of this theatre festival completely altered the town of Stratford, revived its struggling economy and allowed for more sustainable development to occur (Jackson, 1978). Henri Fayol famously wrote a model entitled: the Five Managerial Functions that discusses the qualities a manger needs to have to successfully oversee a project. These five functions are: planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding and controlling (Fells, 2000). The development of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival and the responsible leadership of Tom Patterson will be examined through the lens of Fayol’s model. In doing this, this paper will demonstrate how Tom Patterson’s responsible leadership led to the creation of North America’s largest classical repertory theatre in a rural community that had little hope for the future (Vigneault, and Lapierre, 2008; Jackson, 1978). His leadership is a perfect example of how one person can make a difference and alter the future of a community; even in a small, rural and economically depressed region (Jackson, 1978). 


This paper will begin by discussing a brief history of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival and Tom Patterson’s role in it’s founding. This will be done to give the audience a general understanding of the Festival and the great role Paterson played in its creation. After this, Henri Fayol and his Five Managerial Functions will be reviewed. Then Patterson’s role in the Festival’s founding will be critically examined using Fayol’s model. First, the town of Stratford before the establishment of the Festival will be discussed. After this, how Patterson fulfilled each tenant of Fayol’s model through the development and creation of the Stratford Festival will be analyzed. Lastly, the lasting impact of Tom Patterson’s leadership on the town of Stratford will be examined and used to demonstrate how the actions of one man, can forever change the future of many. 


This paper is written from my own perspective, and thus contains a large bias. This bias must be acknowledged to give the reader a sense of my own predispositions coming into this paper. I am an advocate for the arts, particularly theatre, and The Stratford Shakespeare Festival is one of my favourite theatres in the world. I believe that the development of arts centres can bring positive social benefits to a community while also creating economic gains. I feel that the founding of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival has had many positive economic and social affects on Stratford, and Canada as a whole.

Introduction to the Stratford Shakespeare Festival and Tom Patterson 


Today the Stratford Shakespeare Festival is recognized as one of Canada’s most renowned cultural institutions (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008). As of 2008, the Festival employed 1,000 staff, had an annual budget of over $50 million dollars, a six month season, and attracted on average over 500,000 visitors per year (Vigneault, and Lapierre, 2008). However, when Tom Patterson first raised ideas of creating a Stratford Shakespeare Festival in 1951, the project was perceived as bizarre and impossible by many (Jackson, 1978). If it were not for the dedication and leadership of Tom Patterson, the idea of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival would never have gotten off the ground. As stated by Richard Monette (one of the festival’s past artistic directors) “without Tom Patterson, there would be no Stratford Festival of Canada…his was an extraordinary vision at an extraordinary time” (Jones, 2005). The responsible leadership of Tom Patterson, resulting in the creation of one of Canada’s most recognized theatres will be examined using Henri Fayol’s Five Managerial Functions. 


Introduction to Henri Fayol and his Five Managerial Functions


Henri Fayol was a French engineer and industrialist, whose most famous theory is widely considered to be his Five Managerial Functions (In Business, 2009). Fayol was the first European theorist to write on management as a process (In Business, 2009). The Five Managerial Functions were published in French in 1916, but did not become widely distributed in North America until an English translation was released in 1949 (Spatig, 2009). Some criticized the theories, stating that they ignore the human element in management. However, additional research demonstrated that Fayol’s theories are extremely relevant today as they do provide observations related to initiative and human needs, and relate to foundational themes in management and leadership theory today (Spatig, 2009). 


Fayol’s five managerial functions are: forecasting and planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling (Fells, 2000). Each of these functions are elements that a responsible leader must fulfill to must successfully complete a project (Fells, 2000). Tom Patterson fulfilled all five aspects of Fayol’s model in the development and creation of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. Each tenant of the model will be used to examine the development of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. 


Stratford- Before the Shakespeare Festival 


In 1951 Stratford was a city in decline. Its importance as a railway hub was something of the past, its three main industries were stagnant, and its few hotels and motels were sustained by only by their taverns (Jackson, 1978). Furthermore, the city had developed a poor image based on a 1933 strike among furniture workers and chicken pluckers that became so large that the army had to be called in to stop the unruliness (City of Stratford, 2010). The idea of establishing a theatre festival in this small town with a population of about 20,000 seemed almost bizarre (Edinborough, 1955). Many wondered why people would travel out of the city to visit this small backwoods town, which was not on a main road between major cities or even on route to another tourist destination (Patterson and Gould, 1999; Jackson, 1978). Furthermore, theatre in Canada as a nation was not yet an established idea, as prior to the Festival’s founding only one theatre existed in all of Canada, and no professional company operated there on a regular basis (Edinborough, 1954). Therefore, the idea of establishing a Shakespearean festival in Stratford seemed outlandish at best (Jones, 2005). And yet Tom Patterson saw what Stratford could become. He did not see a dying rural town, but saw his hometown as it could be. As an idyllic town flourishing with life, beauty, and a rural charm and an enthusiasm that could make anything happen (Jones, 2005). It was Patterson’s enthusiasm for, and commitment to revitalizing his town that spurred the Festival to the success that it was destined to become (Jones, 2005; Patterson and Gould, 1999). 


Planning and Forecasting 


Planning and forecasting involves examining the future and making plans to deal with what lies ahead (Fells, 2000). When making a plan, a manager must consider available resources, current and future trends and the larger picture the organization is a part of (Fells, 2000). Forecasting and planning also involves making goals, and then planning what needs to be done in order to accomplish these goals. In the case of Tom Patterson, planning and forecasting involved examining how the Stratford Festival could be developed and making preliminary steps towards the completion of his goal. 


One could argue that Tom Patterson began planning the Stratford Festival while he was still in high school (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008; Patterson and Gould, 1999). When asked by a teacher to imagine ways to revive Stratford’s struggling economy, Patterson first had the idea of developing a theatre festival based around the works of Shakespeare (Patterson and Gould, 1999). He had never received any theatre training, and did not know a great deal about Shakespeare. Yet felt that Stratford would be an ideal location to host a Shakespeare festival mainly because of the town’s name and fact that it was located along an Avon River (similar to Shakespeare’s birthplace Stratford upon Avon in England) (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008; Patterson and Gould, 1999). However, Patterson did little to develop this idea for many years. He went off to war and after returning found a job as a journalist in Ajax, Ontario (Patterson and Gould, 1999). Yet, Patterson’s dream of a Stratford Festival remained in the back of his mind, and in 1950 when he was sent to Winnipeg to attend the Canadian section of the America Waterworks Association Convention, he met with the Mayor of Stratford who was also attending the event. He discussed with the mayor his vision for a Stratford Festival, and how he felt it could renew the town’s economy (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008). The Mayor also knew nothing of Shakespeare, but saw the idea’s potential and gave Patterson a go ahead to begin organizing the development of the Stratford Festival. 


In the development of the Stratford Festival, very little preliminary planning actually occurred. Patterson, had an idea of what could be done to revitalize the economy of Stratford, and took the opportunity to present this idea when possible. Through networking with the Mayor, he was able to move forward from dreaming about the development of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival to organizing its creation. More planning and forecasting occurred throughout the development of the Stratford Festival, and as more information was learned plans were rearranged and altered. It is important for a responsible leader to continue planning and revising plans throughout a project, in order to ensure that one’s plan is up to date and accounts for all known information. 


Organizing 


Organizing involves examining resources, and structuring work so that it can be accomplished. This includes: creating a plan and executing it, aligning objectives with resources, taking initiative and responsibility, and being disciplined (Fells, 2000). In most cases, organizing involves delegating to employees and assigning individual duties (Fells, 2000). 


In order to develop a plan and structure work in such a way that it could be accomplished, Patterson needed to spend more time in Stratford. To do this, Patterson would drive three hours from Ajax to Stratford on a daily basis to speak with potential Festival supporters and develop a plan of attack. He would then travel home, on most days not making it into bed until two or three in the morning (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008). Organizing involved speaking with as many people in Stratford as possible, and developing a firm idea of how the Stratford Festival could be created (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008; Jones, 2005). 
After coordinating with others, further organizing occurred. Mainly, this included the development of Festival Committee, and assigning tasks to each member of this committee (Vigneault, and Lapierre, 2008). By bringing together a large group of people interesting in the development of the Stratford Festival, Patterson was able to begin executing a firm plan of how the Stratford Festival could be developed. 


Coordinating 


The focus of coordinating is establishing relationships outside of ones work area. It involves working with people from various backgrounds effectively and efficiently to achieve ideal results (Fells, 2000). In the case of Tom Patterson, it involved contacting people involved in theatre and the arts, and bringing on board new team members who had the expertise to make his Stratford Festival dreams a reality. Without coordinating with these people, Patterson would never have been able to found the Stratford Festival, as he himself did not have the expertise to undertake this venture. 


Tom Patterson’s main role in the founding of the Stratford Festival was bringing together people with the skills and expertise needed to develop a successful theatre company. After gaining the support of the town of Stratford, and forming a Stratford Festival Committee, Patterson solicited the City Council requesting $100 so he could travel to New York in an attempt to recruit the actor Sir Laurence Olivier (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008; Edinborough, 1954). The Council was so impressed with Patterson that they granted him $125, and although he was unsuccessful in even meeting Olivier the media coverage gained from his trip to New York opened new networking opportunities (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008). Most notably, Scottish born actress Mavor Moore became involved in the Festival’s development. It was through Moore that Patterson was able to contact Tyrone Guthrie, the world famous artistic director at London’s Old Vic Theatre and ask him to join the project (Patterson and Gould, 1999). Guthrie took a chance and quickly agreed to become the Stratford Shakespeare Festival’s first artistic director (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008, Patterson and Gould, 1999; Edinborough, 1954). The addition of Guthrie to the festival project spurred a great deal of action. Guthrie came to Stratford, and brought with him now famed theatre designer Tanya Moiseiwithsch (Patterson and Gould, 1999, Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008; Prosser, 2010). Guthrie chose to accept Patterson’s offer because, in developing a theatre from scratch he could apply new theatrical ideas that he and Moiseiwithsch had been developing. Primarily, the creation of a theatre with a unique thrust stage, similar to those used in Shakespeare’s time (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008). His input in the project attracted a great deal of attention and Guthrie’s connections to the theatre world allowed the project to develop faster then previously imagined (Patterson and Gould, 1999). In addition, he was able to recruit actors including Alec Guinness and Irene Worth, along with many other Canadian actors, and soon after Guthrie’s arrival rehearsals were taking place (Patterson and Gould, 1999; Jones, 2005). 


Patterson’s gaul and aptitude for networking allowed for him to develop the needed connections that would allow for the festival to occur. Patterson knew nothing of Shakespeare or theatre. But through contacting others that had an extensive knowledge of these subject areas Patterson was able to found one of the most successful Shakespearean theatre festivals in the world. Being a responsible leader means bringing together people that can help you accomplish your goals. A leader does not need to be an expert at everything involved in the project that they are leading, but they do need to recognize when to refer to others in order to achieve the best possible results. 


Commanding 


Commanding has at times been interpreted with negative connotations. However, it does not imply that a responsible leader should act as a dictator, but rather that they need to inspire and motivate employees to put their plan into action (Fells, 2000). Effective commanding involves creating unity, energy, initiative, and loyalty among employees in order to achieve ideal results (Fells, 2000). In Patterson’s case, commanding involved bringing together a large group of people (through coordination) and inspiring them to complete their designated tasks. It also involved reaching out to all stakeholders involved in the founding of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in order to gain the funding and backing needed to establish the festival. 


Tom Patterson made some very effective decisions as a commander that led to the successful development of the Stratford Festival. First, when the Festival Committee was founded a charter was developed with five central goals (Jackson, 1978). This charter ensured that all people involved in the creation of the Stratford Festival were aware of the goals being accomplished, and were able to stay on track to complete the tasks required to complete these goals. Second, in addition to being a wonderful networker, Patterson proved to be a very effective fundraiser. Patterson was able to motivate the Festival Committee into action and together they were able to raise the total of $157,000 dollars needed to fund the first season. Additionally Patterson was able to inspire support from the town of Stratford itself, which resulted in $72,000 of the $157,000 raised to be from within Stratford itself (Jackson, 1978). Patterson expected excellence from his team and motivated them to expect the same from themselves, and it this is reflected in the Festival Committee’s motto: “if you make it, make it world-class” (Vigneault and Lapierre, 2008: 79). This motto made the team Patterson had brought together strive for excellence in the creation of the festival. Patterson’s effective commanding was able to unite all members of the team he had brought together to complete the task they set out to do. 


Controlling 


Controlling is the last aspect of Fayol’s model, and it also maybe incorrectly perceived with negative connotations. Controlling involves managing staff in such a way that everything gets completed on schedule (Fells, 2000). In the case of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, it involved making hard choices, and taking on roles best suited to ones own strengths and weaknesses in order to allow a project to best succeed.  


Completing the creation of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival on schedule proved to be somewhat difficult. Problems included finding rehearsal space prior to the construction of the tent where the performances were to be held (until 1957 when a permanent theatre was built), and issues with weather causing flooding of the tent once it was put up, as well as over heating (Patterson and Gould, 1999; Stratford Shakespeare Festival). Another somewhat humorous but rather large problem encountered was that a train travelled through Stratford every night at 8:35pm only three blocks away from where the Festival tent was located, and would make a great deal of noise and blow it’s whistle while travelling through. As performances would start at 8:30pm at night, this train would greatly disrupt the entire performance (Patterson and Gould, 1999). Patterson was able to take control of all these problems and find appropriate solutions. For example, to solve the issue with the train, Patterson was able to contact the head of the Canadian National Railway and convince him to alter the train’s schedule so it went through Stratford at 8:25pm instead (Patterson and Gould, 1999). 


Patterson also understood that making hard decisions was necessary in order to observe the continued success of the Stratford Festival. On July 13th 1953 The Stratford Festival opened to rave reviews, and Patterson’s dream had become a reality (Stratford Shakespeare Festival, 2010; Patterson and Gould, 1999). However, in order to oversee the festival’s future success Patterson withdrew from his role as general manager, as he realized that in order for the festival to continue to thrive, someone with more experience needed to take over this role (Prosser, 2010). In this sense, he was able to take control of the Stratford Festival’s development by recognizing his limited abilities as a general manager due to a lack of training and expertise. In doing this he was able to allow the festival to grow larger and prosper. 


The Lasting Impact of Tom Patterson’s Responsible Leadership


Tom Patterson’s responsible leadership resulted in the creation of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. But more then that, it utterly transformed the town of Stratford. It revitalized the economy of Stratford and allowed for a more sustainable form of development to take place (Mitchell and Wall, 1989). As stated, before the development of the Stratford Festival the economy of Stratford was in decline, and additionally, the main industries in Stratford (furniture and the Canadian Pacific Railway) were rather unsustainable (Jackson, 1978). The development of the Stratford Festival allowed for the economy to begin to expand once more. Not only did the development of the Stratford Festival create a thriving tourism industry based around arts and culture, but it also created the opportunities for Stratford’s economy to become diversified into new sectors including the manufacturing and financial sectors that were developed after the festival’s establishment (City of Stratford, 2010). 


Mitchell and Wall argued that the development of cultural institutions positively contribute to the economic climate and development of a community using a case study of Stratford (1989). They stated that the development of a cultural institution creates primary, secondary and tertiary benefits though out a community. So the development of the Stratford Festival created positive economic benefits for: people directly employed at the Stratford Festival; those involved in other aspects of the tourism industry such as hotel and restaurants; and for businesses that have been attracted to Stratford because of the festival but are not dependent upon it (such as the aforementioned manufacturing and financial sectors) (Mitchell and Wall, 1989). The development of the Stratford Festival has also created positive economic benefits for communities located near Stratford. A study conducted in 1994 discovered that over half of the people who visited Stratford to attend the theatre festival also travelled to the surrounding communities of: St. Mary’s, London, Kitchener-Waterloo, and or St. Jacobs for tourism purposes (Patterson and Gould, 1999). Overall, the development of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival allowed for the economic revitalization of Stratford, and also contributed to economic growth in surrounding communities. The creation of the Stratford Festival also allowed for a more sustainable form of development to occur in Stratford then what was previously taking place. 


Conclusion 


The founding of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival by Tom Patterson is an example of responsible leadership. To develop the festival, Patterson fulfilled all five components of Henri Fayol’s Five Managerial Functions. He forecasted and planned, organized, coordinated, commanded, and controlled. In doing this he was able to create one of the most successful theatre festivals in the world. Patterson had no theatre or business experience, but through hard work and determination was able to make his dream a reality. Many communities throughout Canada are experiencing problems similar to those Stratford dealt with prior to the establishment of the Stratford Festival. These economic difficulties are often considered to be insurmountable and permanent. However, the development of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival under the responsible leadership of Tom Patterson is just one example of how a small rural community, located away from any major city can develop into a thriving community without resulting in massive social or environmental degradation. 




References


City of Stratford. (2010). Know your city-history. Retrieved from http://www.city.stratford.on.ca/site_ourcitylife/know_your_city_history.asp 


Edinborough, A. (1954). A new Stratford Festival. Shakespeare Quarterly, 5(1), 47-54. 


Edinborough, A. (1955). Shakespeare confirmed: At Canadian Stratford. Shakespeare Quarterly, 6(4), 435-440. 


Fayol. (2009). In BUSINESS: The Ultimate Resource. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/ultimatebusiness/fayol


Fells, M.J. (2000) Fayol stands the test of time. Journal of Management, 6(8), 345-361. 


Jackson, A.W. (1978). The Shakespeare festival: Stratford, Ontario, 1953-1977. Shakespeare Quarterly, 29(2), 164-191. 


Jones, K. (2005). Tom Patterson, the Father of Canada’s Stratford Festival, Dead at 84. Playbill. Retrieved from http://www.playbill.com/news/article/91362-Tom-Patterson-the-Father-of-Canadas-Stratford-Festival-Dead-at-84 


Mitchell, C.J.A., and Wall, G. (1989). The arts and employment: A case study of the Stratford Festival. Growth and Change, 20(4), 31-40. 


Patterson, T., and Gould, A. (1999). First stage. Firefly Books, Willowdale, Ontario, Canada. 


Prosser, D. (2010). Tom Patterson. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0009847 


Spatig, L. (2009). Rediscovering Fayol: Parallels to behaviourlist management and transformational leadership. Northeast Business and Economics Association Proceedings.


Stratford Shakespeare Festival. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.stratfordfestival.ca  


Vigneault, S., and Lapierre, L. (2008). Richard Monette, Antoni Cimolino and the Stratford Shakespeare Festival: The king and the dauphin. International Journal of Arts Management, 11(1), 76-90.